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    • Finally gestation and early infancy

    2018-10-26

    Finally, jak stat pathway and early infancy are critical periods for health and overweight development in adolescence and adulthood (Currie & Almond, 2011; Dietz, 1994). To explore this association we ran models controlling for median income and mean education in the municipality at the time when each individual was born. We did not have information corresponding about occupational status at birth. In females, inclusion of income at birth reduced the variance in overweight with 27%, which was almost identical to the reduction observed when income in 2012 was added. Inclusion of education at birth reduced the variance in overweight in females with 32%, compared with 34% when education in 2012 was added. In men, the corresponding numbers were 26% at birth and 21% in 2012, 29% for education at birth and 32% for education at in 2012. Finally, we ran models including all SES variables at the time of birth and in 2012. In females, 59% of the variance was explained, compared with 57% in the models including SES in 2012 only. In men, the comparable numbers were 41% and 40%, respectively.
    Discussion The association between individual body mass index and area-level socio-economic resources supports findings reported in previous studies. A number of these studies have used composite indicators of SES (Adams et al., 2009; Chen & Truong, 2012; Do et al., 2007; Feng & Wilson, 2015; Sundquist, Malmström, & Johansson, 1999; Wen & Maloney, 2014), while other studies have looked specifically at area-level income (Cetateanu & Jones, 2014; King et al., 2006), area-level education (Harrington & Elliott, 2009) or area-level occupational status (Cetateanu & Jones, 2014). A Canadian study, which included school-aged children, used individual-level SES variables in addition to area-level income, occupation and education. This study found that both individual- and area-level SES variables were negatively associated with individual BMI (Janssen, Boyce, Simpson, & Pickett, 2006). However, the mentioned studies explore the associations between high BMI and area-level SES; they do not estimate how much of the geographic variation in high BMI that could be explained by SES. To our awareness, our study provides the first estimates of this. The study was based on an extensive register data source, which provided information on height and weight among women and men in 428 Norwegian municipalities. However, there are limitations that need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings. First, our measure of overweight was based on BMI, which has been criticized because tubular secretion does not incorporate measures of body fat, which is an independent predictor of ill health (Burkhauser & Cawley, 2008). Second, and related to this, there may be measurement errors: if BMI is mis-measured (as it was based on self-reported height and weight), and if the level of mis-measurement is associated with SES, our coefficients might be biased. Finally, there may be reverse causality and omitted variables, either at the individual- or area-level, and the implications of this are discussed in more detail below.
    Introduction Recent literature suggests the importance of cross-border ties on health and well-being (Acevedo-Garcia, Sanchez-Vaznaugh, Viruell-Fuentes, & Almeida, 2012), and that there is growing recognition that migrants are affected by both cultures at the destination and ties to sending communities (Olwig, 2006). Cross-border ties have been defined as the process of maintaining relationships across borders through various means (Mouw, Chavez, Edelblute, & Verdery, 2014). The impact of cross-border ties and health is mixed, suggesting that it may have both protective and adverse health effects for migrants (Torres, 2013). It can provide a type of social protection across borders that may have an effect on the health behaviors of migrants (Faist, Bilecen, Barglowski, & Sienkiewicz, 2015), including how healthcare services are accessed, where migrants seek health-related advice, and how they obtain medication (Heyman, Nunez, & Talavera, 2009; Menjivar, 2006; Wang & Kwak, 2015). One study of Korean immigrants to Canada found that migrants often return to their hometowns for health examinations, import their medications, and seek advice from people back home by phone or online platforms (Wang & Kwak, 2015). Therefore, ties to hometowns take on many forms with potentially wide-ranging consequences and effects.